Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 respires CdSe quantum dots for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution.

Living bio-nano systems for artificial photosynthesis are of growing interest. Typically, these systems use photoinduced charge transfer to provide electrons for microbial metabolic processes, yielding a biosynthetic solar fuel. Here, we demonstrate an entirely different approach to constructing a living bio-nano system, in which electrogenic bacteria respire semiconductor nanoparticles to support nanoparticle photocatalysis. Semiconductor nanocrystals are highly active and robust photocatalysts for hydrogen (H2) evolution, but their use is hindered by the oxidative side of the reaction. In this system, Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 provides electrons to a CdSe nanocrystalline photocatalyst, enabling visible light-driven H2 production. Unlike microbial electrolysis cells, this system requires no external potential. Illuminating this system at 530 nm yields continuous H2 generation for 168 h, which can be lengthened further by replenishing bacterial nutrients.

Mechanistic stratification in electroactive biofilms of Geobacter sulfurreducens mediated by pilus nanowires.

Electricity generation by Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms grown on electrodes involves matrix-associated electron carriers, such as c-type cytochromes. Yet, the contribution of the biofilm's conductive pili remains uncertain, largely because pili-defective mutants also have cytochrome defects. Here we report that a pili-deficient mutant carrying an inactivating mutation in the pilus assembly motor PilB has no measurable defects in cytochrome expression, yet forms anode biofilms with reduced electroactivity and is unable to grow beyond a threshold distance (∼10 µm) from the underlying electrode. The defects are similar to those of a Tyr3 mutant, which produces poorly conductive pili. The results support a model in which the conductive pili permeate the biofilms to wire the cells to the conductive biofilm matrix and the underlying electrode, operating coordinately with cytochromes until the biofilm reaches a threshold thickness that limits the efficiency of the cytochrome pathway but not the functioning of the conductive pili network.

Thermally activated charge transport in microbial protein nanowires.

The bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens requires the expression of conductive protein filaments or pili to respire extracellular electron acceptors such as iron oxides and uranium and to wire electroactive biofilms, but the contribution of the protein fiber to charge transport has remained elusive. Here we demonstrate efficient long-range charge transport along individual pili purified free of metal and redox organic cofactors at rates high enough to satisfy the respiratory rates of the cell. Carrier characteristics were within the orders reported for organic semiconductors (mobility) and inorganic nanowires (concentration), and resistivity was within the lower ranges reported for moderately doped silicon nanowires. However, the pilus conductance and the carrier mobility decreased when one of the tyrosines of the predicted axial multistep hopping path was replaced with an alanine. Furthermore, low temperature scanning tunneling microscopy demonstrated the thermal dependence of the differential conductance at the low voltages that operate in biological systems. The results thus provide evidence for thermally activated multistep hopping as the mechanism that allows Geobacter pili to function as protein nanowires between the cell and extracellular electron acceptors.

Extracellular reduction of uranium via Geobacter conductive pili as a protective cellular mechanism.

The in situ stimulation of Fe(III) oxide reduction by Geobacter bacteria leads to the concomitant precipitation of hexavalent uranium [U(VI)] from groundwater. Despite its promise for the bioremediation of uranium contaminants, the biological mechanism behind this reaction remains elusive. Because Fe(III) oxide reduction requires the expression of Geobacter's conductive pili, we evaluated their contribution to uranium reduction in Geobacter sulfurreducens grown under pili-inducing or noninducing conditions. A pilin-deficient mutant and a genetically complemented strain with reduced outer membrane c-cytochrome content were used as controls. Pili expression significantly enhanced the rate and extent of uranium immobilization per cell and prevented periplasmic mineralization. As a result, pili expression also preserved the vital respiratory activities of the cell envelope and the cell's viability. Uranium preferentially precipitated along the pili and, to a lesser extent, on outer membrane redox-active foci. In contrast, the pilus-defective strains had different degrees of periplasmic mineralization matching well with their outer membrane c-cytochrome content. X-ray absorption spectroscopy analyses demonstrated the extracellular reduction of U(VI) by the pili to mononuclear tetravalent uranium U(IV) complexed by carbon-containing ligands, consistent with a biological reduction. In contrast, the U(IV) in the pilin-deficient mutant cells also required an additional phosphorous ligand, in agreement with the predominantly periplasmic mineralization of uranium observed in this strain. These findings demonstrate a previously unrecognized role for Geobacter conductive pili in the extracellular reduction of uranium, and highlight its essential function as a catalytic and protective cellular mechanism that is of interest for the bioremediation of uranium-contaminated groundwater.

Intramolecular vibrational excitation of unfolding reactions in ZnII-substituted and metal-free cytochromes c: activation enthalpies from integrated fluorescence stokes shift and line shape excitation profiles.

We have employed continuous-wave fluorescence spectroscopy to observe the light-induced formation of partially unfolded states of Zn(II)-substituted and metal-free (or free-base) cytochrome c (ZnCytc and fbCytc, respectively). In these experiments, the intrinsic porphyrin chromophore provides a vibrational excitation to the protein structure via intramolecular vibrational redistribution of the excess vibronic energy above the first excited singlet state. As the excitation light source is tuned, the fluorescence spectrum of both systems exhibits steplike transitions of the integrated Stokes shift, vibronic structure, and line width that mark apparent activation enthalpy barriers for structural transitions of the protein from the native state to a set of at least three partially unfolded states. The vibronic structure of the ZnCytc spectrum reports the exchange of the Zn(II) ion's native H18 and M80 axial ligands with non-native ligands as the excitation wavenumber is scanned through the three barriers. The metal ion's axial ligands contribute substantially to the stability of ZnCytc; the activation enthalpies for the corresponding transitions in fbCytc are one-third of those in ZnCytc. A comparison of the present results from ZnCytc with those obtained previously with picosecond time-resolved methods [Lampa-Pastirk and Beck, J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 22971-22974] indicates that the vibrationally excited protein structure propagates along an unfolding pathway from the native state that specifically populates the three states in order of their activation enthalpies. The excitation-wavenumber profile of the fluorescence line width is markedly inconsistent with a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution over the three states. These results contrast with the general expectation of the protein-folding funnel hypothesis that a distribution of intermediate structures should result from the diffusive propagation of a nonequilibrium protein structure.

Intramolecular vibrational preparation of the unfolding transition state of Zn(II)-substituted cytochrome c.

We show that an intramolecular vibrational excitation provided by the radiationless decay of a covalently bound electronic chromophore can be exploited to drive a protein from its native folded state to the transition state for unfolding. Using this approach, we examine the effect of the polarity and viscosity of the solvent medium on the unfolding and refolding reactions of Zn(II)-substituted cytochrome c at room temperature. The results show that the solvent polarity controls the activation energy for the unfolding and refolding reactions; the solvent viscosity further controls the rate by frictionally hindering the moving polypeptide. These findings suggest an important role for the solvent in the kinetic control of protein-folding trajectories on the energy landscape.